The Functions of Ingredients in Baking for Recipe Development

Are you a curious baker with a love for creating new recipes? Here is fool-proof list on ingredients in baking, including scientific function and flavor profiles, for all of your recipe-testing needs.

When I tell people that I am a pastry chef, the first thing they say to me is “I could never do that; baking is too difficult because everything has to be so precise or it won’t come out right”. Technically, they are correct, but baking is not so black and white as it may seem. While it is no secret that baking is a precise science, there are ways to alter recipes to create a final formula you love and that meets any potential dietary restrictions. In this newsletter, we will be taking a deep dive into the functions and flavors of common baking ingredients and how they interact with each other in a recipe, as well as some common and recommended substitutions to add a little more flair to your everyday baked goods.

Flours

One of the most common ingredients in any recipe is flour. The main function of flour in a recipe is to provide structure. You may know that flour contains gluten. Gluten is made up of two different proteins; glutenin and gliadin. These proteins provide structure to baked goods. But not all flour has the same amount of protein. The more protein in a flour, the more structure it will provide to a recipe. For softer items like cakes, one may choose to use a pastry flour (8%-9% protein) for a more tender crumb. For items that are much heartier, like a sourdough bread, bread flour (12%-14% protein) is often used to provide additional structure and assist in the rising process. If a recipe does not specify which type of flour to use, it most likely calls for all purpose flour, which has a protein content of 11.7%. The bag of flour will always list the protein content.

When altering flour in a recipe, it is important to understand the protein content to achieve the desired texture of the final product. As a rule of thumb, the lower the protein content in a flour, the less structure it will provide. A cake made with pastry flour will be much lighter and more tender in texture than a cake made with bread flour which will be more dense, and so on.

Gluten Free Flours

Gluten free flours including (but not limited to) buckwheat, almond, and store-bought blends provide significantly less structure than regular flours because they do not have the structure-forming proteins that gluten is made up of. Recipes that include these flours will often include other ingredients in small amounts that provide structure instead. Examples of these additional ingredients include cornstarch, potato starch and xantham gum. If you are looking to change a flour in a recipe from one with gluten to one without, highly consider adding an extra stabilizing agent along with it to help provide the desired texture. It is recommended to start with a few tablespoons of extra stabilizer and work your way up or down from there to achieve the desired texture.

Sugars

Granulated Sugar

The most common sugar found in baking is granulated sugar. If a recipe calls for just “sugar”, this is what it is asking for. Sugar is an essential ingredient in baking; not only does it provide flavor and sweetness, but it also gives structure and elongates shelf life in baked goods. In a meringue recipe made up of only sugar and egg whites, sugar provides necessary structure to the cookie. Without it, the whipped egg whites would fall flat within minutes of being whipped. Recipes with high sugar content (including jams and caramels) have extended shelf lives because sugar limits the amount of free water molecules, reducing the rate at which bacteria multiplies.

Brown Sugar

There are two different types of brown sugar; light and dark. Brown sugar is made up of granulated sugar mixed with molasses. Light brown sugar has slightly less molasses than dark brown sugar. In my opinion, they can be used interchangeably for most recipes. Dark brown sugar just has a slightly more earthy flavor than light brown sugar. If interchanging them, keep this in mind. To make your own brown sugar at home, blend 1 TBS of molasses into 8oz (1 cup) of granulated sugar for light brown sugar and 2 TBS of molasses into 8oz (1 cup) of granulated sugar for dark brown sugar. Granulated sugar can also be replaced with brown sugar if a deeper flavor or darker color product is desired.

Fats

Butter

Butter is one of the most common fats in baking. It’s main functions are to provide moisture, flavor, and tenderness in baked goods. In some recipes, like Italian Meringue Buttercream, butter provides structure, while in others, including pie dough and biscuits, butter creates an incredibly soft and flaky texture. Butter truly is an all-around versatile ingredient in baking, and is difficult to substitute out of a recipe for this reason. Note that not all butter is created the same. Butter can have different ratios of fat; the higher the fat content, the more rich the butter will be. USDA standards ensure the minimum fat content of butter in the United States is 80%, but most European brands will have a butterfat content of 82-85%, making them richer in flavor and more luxurious in quality. European butter is often used in pastries where butter is a main flavor profile, including croissants and danishes.

Oils

If you are going to substitute butter partially or completely out of a recipe, chances are you will replace it with some type of oil. Unlike butter, oils are high in moisture but provide little structure or flavor. Vegetable oil is the most common baking option; it is neutral in flavor and has a medium density. Other types of oil in baking include olive oil (fruity flavor, heavy density) and sunflower oil (neutral flavor, light density). If you are baking with oil and find your final product to be too dense, consider using sunflower oil instead of vegetable oil (or skip out on the oil all together and use butter instead).

Eggs

Egg Whites

There are two different parts of an egg; the whites, and the yolks. Egg whites make up about 70% of an egg, and weigh approximately 35 grams each. The whites contain all of the protein content in the egg. Egg whites are often used as stabilizers and as a natural leavening agent due to the high protein content adding structure to recipes. When whipped, egg whites provide volume and lightness to a batter. If a batter is too dense and adding additional baking powder isn’t an option, consider separating the yolks from the whites in the recipe. Add the yolks into the batter as if it were the whole egg, and whip the whites separately, folding them in at the end of the mixing process. You will find that the lightness of the whites adds an airy quality to the batter that it would not have otherwise.

Egg Yolks

Egg yolks are bright yellow in color, rich in flavor, and make up about 30% (15 grams) of a whole egg. Unlike egg whites, egg yolks do not contain any protein and are not used to provide structure. Instead, egg yolks act primarily as an emulsifier. Egg yolks contain lecithin, which is a phospholipid that helps to bind ingredients together. Egg yolks are also high in fat; they add a richness to baked goods that is difficult to replicate with another ingredient.

Eggs are sometimes difficult to substitute in baked goods. In recipes that do not require whipped egg whites, (only requiring whole eggs) one egg can be substituted with 2oz of applesauce, mashed banana, silken tofu, or one tablespoon of ground flax seeds mixed with three tablespoons of water. While the flavor may not be quite as decadent, these ingredients will help bind a batter together similarly to eggs.

Leaveners

Baking Soda

Baking soda is one of the most common chemical leaveners in baking. Also known as sodium bicarbonate, baking soda is known for making baked goods spread. This is most commonly seen in cookies. Cookie doughs with a large amount of baking soda will spread outwards on the tray rather than puff up. In large quantities, baking soda will have a bitter flavor, but in baked goods, baking soda provides little flavor. Baking soda, when mixed with an acid, will cause a chemical reaction that will grow in size and will be foamy. This is how baking soda leavens.

Baking Powder

Baking powder is made up of baking soda and cornstarch. It has the same chemical leavening power as baking soda, with one key difference; the cornstarch gives the chemical reaction structure, forcing the batter to rise up instead of spread out during the baking process. Baking powder is the more common of the two leaveners; often times, bakers prefer the rise of baking powder to the spread of baking soda.

Note: an easy way to remember the difference between the functions of baking powder and baking soda is in the first letter of the name; baking powder puffs, while baking soda spreads. 

Yeast

Yeast is a biological leavener; it is a living organism that does not require a chemical reaction to rise. When yeast is given the proper conditions to grow (warmth, moisture, and food, usually sugar) it releases carbon dioxide and alcohol as byproducts. This process is called fermentation. During fermentation, carbon dioxide bubbles get trapped in the gluten in the dough and forces the gluten to stretch and rise. The higher the protein (gluten) content in the flour, the more carbon dioxide will get trapped, causing bread to rise taller and have more structure. This is how yeast causes doughs to rise.

Active Dry Yeast

The most common type of yeast is active dry yeast. It can be used for a variety of baked goods, including breads, rolls, and pastries. Before adding active dry yeast to a dough, it must be activated. To activate, mix the yeast with a lukewarm milk or water and a bit of sugar. Active dry yeast has a shelf life of about four months when refrigerated, making it an ideal option for home bakers and commercial bakers alike. To determine if your yeast has gone bad, bloom (activate) it in warm liquid with a bit of sugar; if it does not start to foam within five minutes, it may be time to break open some new yeast.

Instant Yeast

Instant yeast is popular because most bakers find it easier to use. This makes it an ideal product to use if you are just starting to work with yeasted doughs. Instant yeast does not require activation like active dry yeast does; it can be added directly to a dough without mixing it with a liquid first. Once opened, instant yeast has a similar shelf life to active dry yeast (around four months).

Fresh Yeast

Fresh yeast often comes in a compressed brick instead of the granules you will encounter with other types of yeast. To use fresh yeast, crumble the desired amount into the warmed liquid in your recipe and stir to combine. Fresh yeast is popular among professional bakers for its aromatic profile and its long rise time. Fresh yeast stays active in a dough longer than other yeasts, and is most suitable for doughs with long fermentation times for this reason. Fresh yeast does have a significantly shorter shelf life than other types of yeast; make sure to use within a few weeks of opening for best results.

Osmotolerant Yeast

Osmotolerant yeast behaves similarly to active dry yeast with one key difference; it is engineered to support rising in doughs with a high sugar content. While sugar is necessary to support fermentation, doughs with a high amount of sugar can actually hinder the fermentation process and lead to slow and stagnant rising. Osmotolerant yeast is able to withstand the extra sugar and helps support proper rising in sweet doughs and brioche. The shelf life once opened is around four months, and you can test the activity of the yeast by mixing it with some warm liquid and a bit of sugar to ensure it is still active if it has been opened for a while.

Dairy

Milk

Milk is one of the most common liquid ingredients in all types of baking. The primary functions of milk in baked goods is to add moisture and flavor. When a recipe calls for milk, you can assume it is asking for whole milk unless otherwise specified. Whole milk has a fat content of between 3.25% and 3.5%. If you were to substitute whole milk with skim, for example, you may notice that the flavor and texture is slightly less rich. This is because skim milk has a lower fat content (0.1%).

Cream

Cream is produced by separating milk into cream and skim milk. A centrifuge spins the milk at such a rate where the fat separates from the water content, creating cream and skim milk as byproducts. The fat percentage in cream can vary depending on the quantity of water that is removed. Light cream can have a fat percentage of anywhere between 18%-30%, while heavy cream has a fat percentage that hovers around 36%-40%. Cream provides flavor, moisture, and stability to baked goods. The higher the fat content, the more stability it provides, especially when whipped. It is not advisable to substitute cream for milk in a recipe, or vice versa; the fat contents are too different.

Buttermilk

Buttermilk is a byproduct of the butter making process. To make butter, cream is whipped so vigorously that it separates into a liquid and a solid mass. The liquid is buttermilk, and the solid is butter. Buttermilk has a fat content of 1%; despite this, it is significantly thicker in viscosity than milk and is much more tangy in flavor. Buttermilk is a fantastic addition to many recipes that may come out a bit dry or flavorless; the extra fat in the buttermilk supports a wide array of baked goods, and often times the slightly tangy flavor is a pleasant surprise.

Sour Cream and Greek Yogurt

Sour cream is often found in recipes like coffee cake or muffins. It has a high fat content and is sour in flavor, more so than buttermilk. The texture of sour cream is also much thicker than buttermilk; it is technically a liquid ingredient in recipes, but it will not be liquid in consistency. Plain greek yogurt is an acceptable substitute for sour cream in almost every recipe, as it is similar in texture and flavor to sour cream. Flavored greek yogurt is not a great substitute; aside from the flavor it could add, flavored greek yogurt often contains lots of sugar. If opting to use flavored greek yogurt instead of sour cream, consider cutting 5%-10% of the sugar out of the recipe to balance the flavors properly.

Salt

Salt is an often overlooked but incredibly important ingredient in baking. Not all salt is created the same. When a recipe calls for salt, many bakers prefer to use fine sea salt as it incorporates into batters and doughs more seamlessly than common kosher salt. Salt is necessary to balance flavors, but also to make flavors pop. Flaky salt on top of a chocolate chip cookie brings out the bitter notes in the chocolate and the sweetness of the cookie dough that might not be as prominent without it. While salt may not feel like a necessary ingredient, it is important to remember that salt is crucial to enhancing the other flavors in your baked goods and should not be skipped.

Creating and Modifying Recipes

When creating your own recipes or modifying family favorites, it is important to know the functions and flavors of basic baking ingredients. It is critical that recipes hit all of the different categories of ingredients; stabilizers, leaveners, liquids, fats, and ingredients that provide flavor to ensure a successful product is created. It is also important to know what ingredients can be substituted for another. Dry ingredients can be substituted for other dries, but you cannot replace flour with milk, or salt for yeast; the functions of these ingredients are too different to replace one another. Instead, try swapping buttermilk in place of milk for a rich and tangy flavor, or use a mix of oil and butter in a cake or muffin instead of one or the other to create a more ideal texture and flavor profile. As long as the one ingredient functions the same as another, they can be interchanged. With a bit of brainstorming, testing, and more brainstorming, the kitchen can be your playground, and anything is possible.